Follicular Lymphoma Case Study

Follicular Lymphoma Case Study The clinical condition given was a 33 year old patient diagnosed with chemotherapy resistant advance follicular lymphoma. Lymphoma is a type of cancer of the lymphocytes, which belongs to the white blood cell family of the body.1 White blood cells circulate the body through an extensive network of lymphatic systems, illustrated in figure 1, which includes the bone marrows, spleen, thymus and the lymph nodes. Lymphoma is categorized into two, the Hodgkin lymphoma and the non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). Follicular lymphoma belongs to the group of NHL that affects the B-cell lymphocytes, which plays a critical role in immune response by producing antibodies in human body. Under the view of a microscope, follicular lymphoma produces a nodule or follicular structure, as the name suggested. Microscopic image of follicular lymphoma can be seen in figure 2. Diagnosis Diagnosis requires a biopsy of a lymph node, involving the process of obtaining a small amount of tissue for testing in the laboratory.5, 6 However, biopsy alone will not be sufficient to diagnose the lymphoma. Other scans on the abdominal, chest, or pelvic areas by using techniques such as Computer Tomography Scan (CT-Scan), Positron Emission Tomography (PET-Scan), will aid diagnosis as well.7, 8 According to the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NNCN) Guidelines, laboratory test which is inclusive of full blood count, uric acid level, serum calcium level, as well as liver function test are needed in order to confirm diagnosis.9 Follicular Lymphoma Stages and Classifications Staging is important in patient with follicular lymphoma as it divides patient into group and determines what kind of treatment is needed, or whether treatment is required. Generally, NHLs are divided into four stages, summarized in table 1 below. Follicular lymphomas categorized in stage II, III, and IV are termed as advanced follicular lymphoma, as the case of the patient in the scenario. 5, 6 Table 1: Stages of NHL in terms of regions involved. Stages Descriptions Stage I Only one of the lymph node is involved Stage II Two or more lymph nodes from the same side of diaphragm are involved Stage III Lymph nodes at both sides of the diaphragm are involved Stage IV Involves a number of lymph nodes, tissues or organs Furthermore, lymphomas can generally be described as Low Grade, Intermediate Grade, or High Grade, depending on the speed they grow, based on the Revised European-American Lymphoma (REAL) grading system1, 6. Generally, low grade lymphomas are slow growing, while high grade lymphomas are characterized by rapid growing tumor cell which requires aggressive treatment compared to low grade and intermediate grade lymphomas. Ironically, many High Grade lymphoma can be cured, while low grades lymphoma tends to reappear and contribute to relapses.6 Apart from the general lymphomas grading, follicular lymphomas have their own grading system, which are separated into three grades. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the follicular lymphomas are categorized according to the number of centroblast (large follicular cell) present while the tumor was scanned by using the highest power of magnification on the microscope.1, 5, 6 The grades were summarized in table 2. Causes A research done by Bosga-Bouwer et al. over 30 patients indicates that genetic factors are the primary causes of follicular lymphomas. The research used southern blotting technique, polymerase chain reaction, and fluorescence in situ hybridization to confirm a translocation in the chromosome 14 and 18, which affects the bcl-2 proto-oncogene, and the main function of bcl-2 genes is to prevent apoptosis of B-cell lymphocytes.10 Overexpression of the bcl-2 gene results in prolonged survival rate of the cell due to the prevention of programmed cell death.1, 10 Signs and Symptoms Symptoms of follicular lymphoma include adenopathy, night sweats, weight loss, and fever. Adenopathy represents painless swelling in one the lymph nodes. Another important indicator includes elevated levels of Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH), an enzyme that facilitates the conversion of pyruvate to lactate. 11 However, it is important to note that some of the patient lymphoma will be asymptomatic. Complications Follicular lymphoma will further complicate by increasing tumor bulk and threaten end-organ function. After a given period of time, it might transform into a more rapid growing lymphoma- the diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL). In contrast, DLBCL is a much more aggressive form of NHL. According to a research done by Horning and Rosenberg, 25% to 60% of the patient will transform from follicular lymphoma into DLBCL12. A paper done by Lossos et al. suggested that the transformation to DLBCL includes multiple genetic mechanisms no single gene is responsible for the transformation13. Apart from that, another paper by Montoto from Cancer Research UK Medical Oncology Unit, demonstrates that the risk will be significantly higher (P-value = 0.02) if a patient was in an advanced stage of follicular lymphoma, which is the situation present in the case scenario14. It was also found that there are no statistically significant differences between the time of initiation of therapy and chances o f transforming from follicular lymphoma into DLBCL. If a patient with DLBCL is not treated accordingly, it is often fatal 5, 14. Furthermore, tumor of follicular lymphoma might relapse and further develop into chemotherapy resistant follicular lymphoma. Chemotherapy resistant lymphoma occurs when the lymphoma that has been responding to chemotherapy had begun to grow, resisting the effects of the therapy. The resistances are acquired through a number of mechanisms, namely genetic transformation of the B-cells. When this occurs, as seen in the case, the treatment option will be narrowed down, since chemotherapy is no longer an option.15 Incidence, Morbidity, and Mortality Rate Follicular lymphomas have an incidence rate of 2500 cases each year in the UK.16 It exhibits the second highest incidence rate among all the lymphomas, with the first being DLBCL. 17 It dominates 30% of all the NHL and it is the most common type of Low Grade NHL.1, 17 Prognosis Index is used to predict the treatment options and outcome of follicular lymphoma. A Follicular Lymphoma Prognosis Index, developed by Solal-Celigny, is currently being used internationally18. This prognosis index takes into account of 5 factors, which are age (>60 years), stages of follicular lymphoma (stage III IV), hemoglobin levels (low), numbers of lymph nodes/organs affected (>4), and levels of LDH (high) 17, 18. 91% of patient which suffers none of the abovementioned factors will live longer than 5 years. If the patient suffers from two or three of the factors in Follicular Lymphoma Prognosis Index, the rate of living longer than 5 years will drop to 78% and 43% respectively 18. In the UK, the median age of onset of follicular lymphoma was 60 years old, as compared to 67years old in the United States (US) 16, 19. In the US, according to the National Cancer Institute, rate of mortality was the highest among those from 75-84 years old, with a death rate of 33.7%. However, in those patient aged from 20-34 years old (case scenario patient aged 33years) mortality rate was only 1.6%. The average death rate of patient with NHL was 7.1 per 100,000 men and woman per year in the US19. Evidence Based Treatment Options of Follicular Lymphoma Follicular lymphoma can be considered incurable, but fortunately the growing tumors are sensitive to radiation and chemotherapy. Treatment options of lymphomas are highly based on severity of the symptoms and stages of lymphoma.5,20 If patient is asymptomatic, prescribers often employs a wait and watch approach, and according to studies, there is no difference in the survival rate between patients who were treated earlier and patients who were treated according to wait and watch method. 20 Treatments options are summarized in table 3. Treatment options Descriptions Radiotherapy Uses ionizing radiation to destroy cells Chemotherapy Uses drugs to stop or slow down the growth of cells Monoclonal antibody Uses proteins that targets rapid growing cells Radioimmunotherapy Radioactive isotopes combined with monoclonal antibodies Bone Marrow Transplant Transplantation of stem cells Radiotherapy One of the ways to treat follicular lymphoma is by performing radiotherapy, which is also called radiation therapy. It was preferably use in Stage I or Stage II of the lymphomas which are localized.20, 21 The mechanism of radiotherapy includes usage of ionizing radiation such as beta and gamma rays to destroy the tumor cells and impairs their growth, while the body removes them through a natural process. Currently, the method employed in treatment of lymphoma tumor is known as the external beam therapy. 20, 21, 22 External beam therapy is done from a machine outside the patient, which is known and the linear accelerator. Radiation to body parts above the diaphragm is known as Mantle Field radiation, while radiation to parts below the diaphragm is known as Inverted Y-field radiation.22 A study by Aviles has shown that survival rate of a patient treated with radiotherapy for a 5 years period was 48%, and if used together with chemotherapy, the patients survival rate will be increased to 83%.23, 24 According to another research by MacManus, 40% of the radiotherapy patient remained disease free after 10 years. Chemotherapy Chemotherapy involves the usage of drugs to stop or slow down the growth of lymphoma B-cells, hence managing the lymphomas symptoms.5, 6 Chemotherapy drugs only target specific rapid-growing cells such as tumor cells, and impairs their ability to multiply and growth. 20 However, many cell lines in patients such as bone marrow, hair follicles, and the lining of the gastrointestinal tract are rapid-growing cells and therefore, it will be targeted by chemotherapy drugs as well, causing the side effects. Initial responses towards chemotherapy are usually high, and therefore, it is considered as the first line-treatment in treating NHL.20 Many protocols of chemotherapy combination were proposed, with the common ones being the CHOP and CVP. CHOP therapy includes the usage of four drugs- Cyclophosphamide, Doxorubicin, Vincristine, and Prednisone while CVP therapy uses Cyclophospharmide, Vincristine, and Prednisone.5, 6, 20 A research by Fisher had concluded that CHOP should be used as first line treatment for advanced grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma, with a result of 44% survival rate in 1138 patient after a period of 3 years.26 However, a more recent study by Hiddemann suggested that the use of Rituximab, a monoclonal antibody, together with CHOP greatly improves the response rate of patient to 96% (P-value of 0.011), and reduce the chances of treatment failure by 60%. The study, which was done on 2005, proves that R-CHOP is the superior frontline treatment of choice for advanced follicular lymphoma compared to CHOP. According to the British National Formulary 57 (BNF 57), the usage of CHOP will produce side effects such as oral mucositis, hyperuricaemia and tumour lysis syndrome. Nausea and vomiting is also the common side effects of chemotherapy drugs, and it may lead to refusal of further treatment. Bone marrow suppression and alopecia are also of the core problems of chemotherapy drugs. Monoclonal Antibody Therapy Monoclonal antibody therapy works by using antibodies that sticks to the surface of specific groups of cells, such as cancer cells, and trigger the bodys natural immune system to destroy these cells. 5 The advantages of monoclonal antibody compared to chemotherapy is that they are more specific compared to chemotherapy. Rituximab is used to treat follicular lymphoma, due to the mechanism of action of binding to CD20 protein- the abundant protein on the surface of B-cell. Rituximab causes the death of the cell by the induction of apoptosis. 29 According to the BNF 57 and North London Cancer Guideline, Rituximab is used to treat stage III and IV follicular lymphoma, or in those patient that had a relapse after treatment of chemotherapy, or those that other treatment options are exhausted.16, 28 Nice guidelines recommends that Rituximab should be given as a third-line treatment, and should only be given as first line with combination of chemotherapy to patient with stage III and IV follicular lymphoma. A meta-analysis research by Vidal et al. reveals that when Rituximab was given as a maintenance therapy, it significantly improves overall survival rate and the relapse rate of patient, compared to patient that did not have Rituximab as maintenance therapy.29, 30 Another research by Hauprock and Hess indicates that Rituximab improves survival rate if given as relapse therapy and maintenance therapy.31 When given together with CHOP chemotherapy, it greatly improves the overall outcome of a patient. Adverse side effects of Rituximab appears to be infusion related side-effects, namely the cytokine release syndrome, which is characterized by fever, chills, nausea and vomiting, as well as tumor pain. Radioimmunotherapy Radioimmunotherapy consist of one radioactive isotope and a monoclonal antibody to assist specific cell targeting. The radioactive isotope which is attached to the antibody will release radiation once the antibody is bound to the specific cell type, hence killing the cells.21, 32 This method is considered to be a more advance therapy compared to chemotherapy and monoclonal antibody therapy. There are two drugs available now in radioimmunotherapy, namely Bexxar and Zevalin.32, 33 Zevalin consist of two radioactive isotopes called indium-111 and yttrium-90. The purpose of indium-111 in the drug is to enables physician to view the paths of the drug in the body, while yttrium-90 is the therapeutic portion of the drug. Zevalin is administered via the intravenous route together with Rituximab over a time of ten minutes, over a course of a week. The main side effect of Zevalin is lowered blood cell count, normally observed 4-6 weeks after the treatment. However, Zevalin is considered to be advantageous in terms of side-effects as it does not exhibits the normal side-effects of chemotherapy drugs, such as alopecia, nausea and vomiting. In a clinical trial involving patients with NHL, Zevalin manage to produce a response rate of 70-80%. Furthermore, in the same trial, Zevalin produces responses in patient who no longer respond to chemotherapy and Rituximab.32 A review by WitZig showed a response rate of 82% to Zevalin in patient with low grade NHL. The advantages of Zevalin Therapy are that it only uses a single dose of radiation and it is being well tolerated by the patient, which was proven in the study.34 In another randomized controlled trial done by WitZig and Gordon et al., Zevalin was proved to be more superior than Rituximab, with an overall response rate of 80% compared to 55% in treating follicular lymphoma. Apart from that, another immunotherapy drug called Bexxar, is a combination of Tositumomab and Iodine I 131 Tositumomab. Tositumomab is a monoclonal antibody targeting the CD20 protein in the B-cell Lymphoma, while Iodine I 131 Tositumomab is a radiolabeled derivative of the monoclonal antibody. Beta-radiation released by Iodine 131 is responsible for killing of the tumor cells. Bexxar is given in two different sets of intravenous infusion, two weeks apart.   Common side-effects of Bexxar include suppression of bone marrow, which is characterized by low blood counts. Bexxar might also cause hyperthyroidism and anti-murine antibody formations.   A research done by Kaminski et al. shows that Bexxar produces a very high response rate of 95% in 76 patients who enrolled in the study. 75% of the patient in the study still had a complete remission even after 5 years. This research of Bexxar rivals any kind of therapy previously used in treating follicular lymphoma, including chemotherapy, as Bexxar therapy will be completed in just one week, and proves to be more effective. Another study, by Jacene, comparing Bexxar and Zevalin, reveals that Bexxar will cause less bone marrow suppression compared to Zevalin, although both were generally well tolerated.   Treatment Recommendation for Patient in Case Scenario According to the patient in the case scenario given, he is currently 33 years-old and he developed chemotherapy resistant advanced follicular lymphoma recently. Advanced follicular lymphoma indicates that his condition is in either stage III or IV, involving lymph node on both sides of the diaphragm and/or organs. In this case, since the follicular lymphoma developed resistance, chemotherapy is no longer an option. According to the BNF and the NICE guideline, Rituximab monotherapy could be given to patients who have relapsed stage III or IV follicular lymphoma, which developed resistance to chemotherapy. 28, 29 It is recommended that the patient takes 375mg/m2 of Rituximab over a period of 21 days, according to the instructions in NICE guideline. The patient has to be on it for 8 cycles which is approximately 6 months.   Rituximab was proved to induce better response and improve overall survival rate in follicular lymphoma patient according to the meta-analysis of randomized trial performed by Vidal et al. and another study done by Hauptrock and Hess (mentioned above in treatment). Another study by Monila further supports the usage of Rituximab as it increase both response rate and survival rate as well as improving the long-term prognosis of follicular lymphoma patient. All these evidence validates the treatment option of using Rituximab in the patient. The cost of Rituximab based on the evaluation of Assessment Group Model in the NICE guideline is approximately  £8500 per life year gained in patient younger than 60 years-old and  £9700 per life year gained in patient aging 60 years-old and above. It is considered cost effective based on the evaluation of the NICE guideline. If treatment using Rituximab proves to be unsuccessful, radioimmunotherapy drug Bexxar will be recommended. Although Bexxar is still considered a new drug, the clinical trials done by Kaminski shows a remission rate of 75%. Bexxar had also been evaluated in one of the study, which shows that 86% of the patient achieved a complete response in Stage III and IV follicular lymphoma. Conlusion In conclusion, patient with chemotherapy resistant advanced follicular lymphoma should be treated with Rituximab, followed by Bexxar and Zevalin. All in all, with the new advances in radioimmunotherapy, the joint effort of health care professionals and the utilizing of guidelines with evidence-based research, patient with the follicular lymphoma, although incurable, will still be able to lead a healthy and fruitful life.

Misuse of Anti Dowry Law

Misuse of anty dowry laws in India- the other side of the coin. Synopsis: I] Introduction II] Justification of study. III] Scope of study. IV] Methodology adopted. V] Chapterisation. a)Meaning of dowry & its historical background in Indian society b) Consequences of dowry on society. c) Legal provisions about dowry. d) Misuse of anty dowry laws. e) Public opinion about antidowry laws VI] Conclusion. -: Introduction:- Normally Dowry is considered as the poison of the marital life, life taking thing in the name of traditional practice. Mostly media and newspaper daily colour the events of dowry deaths and cruelty against wife for obtaining maximum TRP for their channels and newspaper and as the press and media are the fourth pillar of democracy engrave the negative impact about the male members of the society. Every death after marriage is unfortunately to be considered by the society as the dowry death and cruelty by the families of the husband. No doubt there are many laws are there in various Acts made by the legislature for the protection of the women against dowry and cruelty from the husband and his family members. But, does the legal machinery analyse if the anti dowry laws made by the Indian parliament are being misused by the wives to extort money from the families of their husband or not? Hence one must also have to look at the other side of the coin also. II]-: Justification of study:- Every Law enacted by the parliament is the sword of both edged. It can help the society for eradicating the evils of the society also to remove the inhuman traditions prevailing in the society but it can be misused by the society to a greater extent. Hence the main reason for choosing this topic for research by the researcher is to study the social impact of anti dowry laws in Indian society and to trace are the anti dowry laws are being used in a positive way by the society in order to eradicate the evils or is being misused just only to extort money from the husband and his relatives & to harass them mentally. III] Scope :— The scope of this research will be limited to study the present impact of anti dowry laws enacted by the parliament on the society and to find out how far the anti dowry laws are used to eradicate the evils in the society or is being misused only to extort money from the husband and his relative and to put this issue before the NGO’s and all types of legal and non legal authorities for the purpose of prevention of anti dowry laws from its being misused. -:Methodology adopted:- There are two main kinds of methodologies which are used in research they are as follows: I. Doctrinal or traditional or non-empirical legal research. & II. Non doctrinal or empirical legal research. Doctrinal or traditional or non-empirical legal research:- A doctrinal research means a research that has been carried out on a legal proposition or propositions by the way of analyzing the existing statutory provision and cases by applying the reasoning power. According to S. N. Jain doctrinal research involves analysis of case law, arranging ordering and systematizing a legal prepositions and study of legal institutions through legal reasoning or rational deductions. Ascertaining a legal rule for the purpose of solving problem is one of the purposes of traditional legal research. This has been achieved by the original sources of law the acts of parliament and the acts passed by legislatures fall under this category of precedents. The secondary sources like text books on law, commentaries do not possess as much authority as the original sources possess. Hence, quality of doctrinal research depends upon the source material on which the researcher depends upon his study. The doctrinal research attempts to verify the hypothesis by a firsthand study of authoritative sources. A doctrinal researcher should know how to use a law library for the major portion of his research methodology concern with the identification of authoritative sources and use of techniques to find them out. Doctrinal research looks at the following issues:- 1)The aim of preferred values, 2)The problems posed by the gap between the policy goal and the present state of achievement, 3)Availability of alternative choice for the implementation of goals 4)The predictions and consequences that were made. Following are the characteristics of doctrinal research:- 1) The study is mainly based on propositions, ) The sources of data for a doctrinal, Researchers are the reports of appellate Courts and conventional legal theory. 3) It is concern with what the particular doctrine of law says and not as what made the authority to say so or what has been that impact of that say . II. Non doctrinal legal research or empirical legal research:- Conducting empirical research in law is of recent origin. E mpiric means relying solely on observation and experiment not on theory. The empirical research is carried out by collecting gathering data or information relating to universe by a firsthand study. The empirical research technique is also called as fact research. Explaining the scope of this technique, Arthur Nussabaum observed, by fact research in law we mean the systematic search Into the social, political and the other fact conditions which give rise to individual rules and examination of the social, political and other effects of these rules. Empirical research is an inquiry that attempts to discover and verify general rules allowing us to understand why human beings behave the way they do. The methods like observation,interview,questionnaire,survey and case study are used to discover the human conduct. All inquiries are not suitable to empirical methods. Any inquiry whose objective is to determine what is good and what is evil cannot be empirically tested. The reason for this is that the researcher cannot discover the admissible physical evidence. Research into the value system and moral questions are not amenable to empirical methods. The empirical research is mainly concern with the legal decision process, i. e. researcher’s attention is on variables that influence the decision and the impact of decisions on the society. The empirical decision may be defined as research into relationship of law and other behavioral sciences. here,more importance is given to people,social values andsocial institutions and not to the legal aspects or doctrines. Usually a researcher undertakes some aspects of legal decisions and his more numerical and needed data won’t be available in the library, hence field work has to be done. In American universities, legal researchers have originally employed the empirical research methods in their pre-legislative inquiry. Following are the characteristics of non-doctrinal research:- ) It tries to find out the impact of no –legal events upon the legal decision process. 2) It seeks to identify and appraise the degree of variables which influence the outcome and legal decision-making. 3) It tries to find out the effect the effect of each decision on people and society as such. The field of empirical research is wider and the availability sources are very less which invo lve several new techniques which are known to research. For the purpose of research on this topic the researcher is using here Doctrinal or traditional or non-empirical legal research. :Chapterisation:- a)Meaning of dowry & its historical background in Indian society The beginning of 19th century plays an important role in degrading Indian women till its depth. The fear of insecurity not only envisaged in unmarried young women but also married women. In India, â€Å"family† has always been prime importance. Marriage being an important social institution since Vedic period was biased against women. It was regarded as the social alliance between two families instead of two persons. The bride was expected to serve her husband and his family and ensure their happiness and well being. There was no question of her happiness, expectation or content. There were three main objectives of Hindu marriage: dharma or religious duties to be performed by the couple, proja or procreation, and rati or conjugal love. 1 The exploitation of woman began with the child marriage. A girl too young to take life seriously, a girl too young to understand the meaning of ‘life’ and ‘marriage’, had to step into the world of thorns. She was subjudicated by her mother-in-law and other members of her husband’s family, most of the time including even her husband. She was expected to observe ‘purdah’, not to speak to elders, speak in low voice to younger members of family, not to speak or meet her husband except midnight and bear all harsh words and sufferings for even minor fault and above all never to express her sorrows or utter a word of distress to anyone. A woman had no freedom, neither personal nor economic. Traditionally, the Hindu woman had distinct economic right called ‘stridhan’. 2 In order to partially set off the disability suffered under the notion of joint ownership by male members, the smritikars assigned a special category of property to women termed as ‘stridhana’. The first mention of this term is found in Gautama Dharma sutra. He provided not only for the women’s separate property but also distinct and separate rules for its succession. But the definition of ‘stridhana’ changed over from time to time, granting all the rights and power to husbands. Consent of the gi rl was not considered to be relevant and hence, she was left with no choice, except to accept all pains and marry. The traditional concept of marriage has greatly changed and Hindu marriage is considered to be of dual nature i. e. f both religious sacrament and contract, where mutual consent and benefit of both the parties are duly aided by different legal provisions and reforms. Attempts to bring about changes in the status of women either through legislation or judicial activism can achieve little success without a simultaneous movement to transform the social and economic structures and the culture (values, ideologies and attitudes) of society. 4 One of those attempts to bring changes in status of women and relieve her from her sufferings, pains and gloomy environment is given under chapter XX-A of Indian Penal Code, 1860. ) Consequences of dowry on society. c) Legal provisions about dowry. Following are some legal provisions about dowry- Chapter XX-A of Indian Penal Code, 1860, refers to ‘cruelty by husband or relatives of husband’ and includes section 498-A. Section 498-A states, that whoever being the husband or relative of the husband of woman, subjects such woman to cruelty shall be punished with the imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years and also be liable to fine. Explanation- For the purpose of this section, â€Å"cruelty† means- (a) Any wilful conduct which is of such nature as is likely to drive the woman to commit suicide or to cause grave injury or danger to life, limb or health (whether mental or physical) of the woman; or (b) Harassment of the woman where such harassment is with view to coercing her or any person related to her meet any unlawful demand for any person related to her to meet such demand. The section was enacted to combat the menace of dowry deaths. It was introduced in the code by the Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1983 (Act 46 of 1983). By the same Act section 113-A has been added to the Indian Evidence Act to raise presumption regarding abetment of suicide by married woman. The main objective of section 498-A of I. P. C is to protect a woman who is being harassed by her husband or relatives of husband. Section 113-A of Indian Evidence Act, reads as follows: Sec. 13-A, Presumption as to dowry death- When the question is whether a person has committed the dowry death of a woman and it is shown that soon before her death such woman has been subjected by such person to cruelty or harassment for, or in connection with, any demand for dowry, the Court shall presume that such person had caused the dowry death. Explanation- For the purpose of this section ‘dowry death’ shall have the same meaning as in section 304-B of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860). The object for which section 498A IPC was introduced is amply reflected in the Statement of Objects and Reasons while enacting Criminal Law (Second Amendment) Act No. 46 of 1983. As clearly stated therein the increase in number of dowry deaths is a matter of serious concern. The extent of the evil has been commented upon by the Joint Committee of the Houses to examine the work of the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961. In some of cases, cruelty of the husband and the relatives of the husband which culminate in suicide by or murder of the helpless woman concerned, which constitute only a small fraction involving such cruelty. Therefore, it was proposed to amend IPC, the Code of Criminal Procedure,1973 (in short ‘the Cr. P. C’) and the Evidence Act suitably to deal effectively not only with cases of dowry deaths but also cases of cruelty to married women by the husband, in- law’s and relatives. The avowed object is to combat the menace of dowry death and cruelty. 5 The act of harassment would amount to cruelty for the purpose of this section. Drinking and late coming habits of the husband coupled with beating and demanding dowry have been taken to amount to cruelty within the meaning of this section, but this section has been held not to include a husband who merely drinks as a matter of routine and comes home late. 6 In a case before Supreme Court it was observed that this section has given a new dimension to the concept of cruelty for the purposes of matrimonial remedies and that the type of conduct described here would be relevant for proving cruelty. d) Misuse of anty dowry laws. e) Public opinion about anti dowry laws

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Cómo se paga y costo de fianza migratoria en EE.UU.

Si un familiar o amigo es detenido por Inmigracià ³n es posible que el ICE o un juez fijen una fianza y pueda ser liberado mientras espera que se resuelva su caso. La fianza la puede pagar directamente un amigo o familiar del migrante detenido o, si nadie cercano tiene recursos econà ³micos para ello, se puede recurrir a una agencia autorizada. Pago de fianza por amigo o familiar del migrante detenido En estos casos, el amigo o familiar debe encontrase legalmente en Estados Unidos, prefirià ©ndose que sea ciudadano americano o un residente permanente legal. El pago debe hacerse por la totalidad de la cantidad fijada como fianza por el ICE o por el juez de corte migratoria. Se acepta pago en dinero en efectivo o con bonos del Tesoro de los Estados Unidos (bonds, notes). Para hacerse efectivo el pago es necesario cerrar previamente una cita por telà ©fono con la oficina local del ICE (appointment to pay the bond). El dà ­a de la cita acudir al lugar que se ha indicado y a la hora seà ±alada. Es muy importante que solo se presente un familiar o amigo del detenido que tenga estatus legal en Estados Unidos, ya que de encontrase en situacià ³n de indocumentado podrà ­a ser detenido. Ademà ¡s, debe llevar un I.D. và ¡lido, tipo licencia de manejar del estado en el que reside habitualmente, pasaporte estadounidense, tarjeta de residencia, etc. Asimismo, debe llevar la tarjeta original de su Nà ºmero del Seguro Social. No se admite llevar una copia de la misma. Finalmente, ante un oficial el amigo o familiar del migrante que deposita la fianza debe firmar los documentos I-305 - original del recibo de haber pagado la fianza- y el I-352 -copia del contrato de fianza. Estos documentos deben de guardarse porque serà ¡ necesario para recuperar la fianza cuando finalice el proceso en contra del migrante. ​Pago de fianza migratoria a travà ©s de una agencia autorizada En ocasiones es conveniente pagar a travà ©s de una agencia de fianzas migratorias, que se conocen en inglà ©s como bond agents. Por ejemplo, porque los familiares y amigos no tienen estatus legal o porque no tienen todo el dinero que piden de fianza para hacer frente a la misma. En estos casos puede decirse con carà ¡cter general que el familiar o amigo que solicita la colaboracià ³n de una agencia autorizada debe pagar entre el 15 y el 20 por ciento del total de la fianza en dinero en efectivo y garantizar el resto con un colateral, como puede ser con una propiedad, con la nà ³mina, el auto, etc. Es muy importante saber cuà ¡nto se tiene que pagar, cuà ¡l es el colateral y otras condiciones econà ³micas, como monto de tarifas no recuperables. Tambià ©n conviene tener en cuenta que los bond agents suelen cobrar como comisià ³n por sus servicios entre el 15% y el 20% del total de la fianza. Asimismo, algunos agentes exigen para pagar la fianza que una vez que son liberados los migrantes lleven unos grilletes de monitoreo electrà ³nico con un GPS incorporado para saber en todo momento dà ³nde se encuentra el migrante. Algunos agentes llegan a cobrar a los migrantes $420 por mes en concepto de arrendamiento por el grillete. Por estas razones es conveniente contactar con varias agencias y comparar las condiciones ofertadas por cada una de ellas y tener mucho cuidado con lo que se firma, particularmente si està ¡ en inglà ©s y no se entiende el compromiso que se adquiere.  ¿Cuà ¡l es el monto de la fianza de migracià ³n? El costo de la fianza depende de varios factores, entre ellos: la gravedad de la acusacià ³n contra la persona extranjerasu historial delictivosi tiene familiares en los Estados Unidossu estatus migratorioposibilidades de desaparecer y no presentarse en las audiencias en la Corte de Inmigracià ³n En là ­neas generales hay dos tipos de fianzas migratorias: las fianzas conocidas como departure bonds se fijan a partir de $500, dependiendo del caso.los deliver bonds tienen un monto que puede ir desde los $1.500 hasta los $10.000 o mà ¡s. Segà ºn datos de la Executive Office of Immigration Review, en el aà ±o fiscal 2019 el monto medio de las fianzas migratorias es de $8.000. Con los deliver bonds el migrante queda en libertad mientras sigue en trà ¡mite su proceso de deportacià ³n. Si falta a alguna cita en corte, pierde el derecho a la libertad y todo el dinero entregado en concepto de fianza. Con los departure bonds el migrante se ha comprometido a abandonar EE.UU. en un plazo determinado y pagando à ©l o ella por los gastos de esta salida. El migrante queda libre despuà ©s de pagar esta fianza para poder arreglar sus asuntos antes de salir del paà ­s. Si no cumple con el plazo establecido, el migrante pierde el dinero de la fianza.  ¿Cuà ¡nto se demora ICE en regresar el dinero de la fianza? Cuando el proceso que se sigue contra el migrante finaliza o cuando el migrante abandona EE.UU. se puede reclamar al gobierno que regrese el dinero depositado en concepto de deliver bond o departure bond. Segà ºn ICE, està ¡n regresando la fianza en el plazo de un mes a partir de la fecha en la que se reclama su devolucià ³n. Sin embargo, datos publicados por la Universidad de Stanford y la Universidad de California, Davis, muestran que frecuentemente la demora es mucho mayor y que, como consecuencia de ello, ICE tiene bajo su custodia $204 millones en finanzas. Ademà ¡s, 18.000 personas jamà ¡s han reclamado la devolucià ³n de la fianza. La complicacià ³n del trà ¡mite impide que muchos migrantes puedan hacerlo sin encontrar ayuda legal cualificada. Pago de fianzas migratorias La posibilidad de pagar fianza y su monto lo establece ICE o un juez de Inmigracià ³nEl pago de la fianza para liberar a un migrante de su detencià ³n puede ser realizada por un familiar o amigo con estatus legal o recurrir a los servicios de un agente de fianzas.Si se utilizan los servicios de un agente, comparar condiciones entre varios, particularmente cuà ¡nto tarde en depositar la fianza, porcentaje de su comisià ³n, tarifa no reembolsable, quà © pide de colateral y si exige que el migrante liberado utilice un grillete electrà ³nico.No es fà ¡cil el papeleo para reclamar a ICE que regrese el dinero de la fianza. Es muy comà ºn que se necesite recurrir a los servicios de un abogado o de una persona con conocimientos sobre este tipo de fianzas. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal. Fuentes: Flynn, Meagan, ICE is holding $204 million in bond money, and some immigrants might never get it back The Washington Post. April, 26, 2019.https://www.washingtonpost.com/immigration/ice-is-holding-204-million-in-bond-money-and-some-immigrants-might-never-get-it-back/2019/04/26/dcaa69a0-5709-11e9-9136-f8e636f1f6df_story.html?utm_term.7a18f948b630

History And Politics Of Education - 1301 Words

The History and Politics in the Demographics of Education Education is a fundamental aspect of society in the United States of America. In order to comprehend how the current education system is at its present state, one must observe the major factors that have affected the education system. Demographics are leaving an everlasting imprint on U.S. education, spanning back to the late nineteenth century at Harvard University (Du Bois 364). According to Norman Eng (Adjunct Assistant Professor at Brooklyn College and education researcher/writer (Eng 282)), â€Å"Simply, demographics tell us what issues we are dealing with and what kind of society we are becoming† (Eng 272). It is the guiding factor in determining what course of action is†¦show more content†¦He states that â€Å"you must evolve your own social institutions†¦ You must put behind your demands, not simply American Negroes, but West Indians and Africans, and all the colored races of the world† (Franklin 383). These beliefs will remain intact for app roximately half a century, to the time when the U.S. acknowledges â€Å"that segregated public schools are inherently unequal† (Stallion 65). The Supreme Court case, Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 leads to the determination that racial segregation is unconstitutional and violates the 14th amendment right to all citizens of equal protection of the laws. This decision subsequently results in an event in 1957 when nine African American high school students in Little Rock, Arkansas - the Little Rock nine - are integrated into the exclusively white school, Central High (Boyd 36). This initial node of integration has driven us to our current system of education, with many diverse groups mixed together. New initiatives are created for the advancement of all learners. Not all students are on the same academic level in terms of their knowledge of all core school subjects. The U.S. government tries to ensure that all students are given equal opportunities to succeed. One of these methods is the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act. This piece of legislation has an objective of â€Å"reducing achievement gaps between disadvantaged and other pupils† (â€Å"Overview of No Child Left Behind† 131). A part of the NCLB Act

Naturally Occuring Earth Quakes Free Essays

string(163) " the strongly oblique convergent plate boundary between the  Arabian  and  Eurasian plates  where it runs through the northwestern part of the  Zagros  mountains\." ————————————————- Naturally occurring earthquakes Fault types Tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a  fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly and  aseismically  only if there are no irregularities or  asperities  along the fault surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a form of  stick-slip behaviour. We will write a custom essay sample on Naturally Occuring Earth Quakes or any similar topic only for you Order Now Once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the  stored energy. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic  strain  seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface, and cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the  elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake’s total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the earthquake’s energy is used to power the earthquake  fracture  growth or is converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth’s available  elastic potential energy  and raise its temperature, though these changes are negligible compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from the  Earth’s deep interior. 2] Earthquake fault types Main article:  Fault (geology) There are three main types of fault that may cause an earthquake: normal, reverse (thrust) and strike-slip. Normal and reverse faulting are examples of dip-slip, where the displacement along the fault is in the direction of  dip  and movement on them involves a vertical component. Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being  extended  such as a  divergent boundary. Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being  shortened  such as at a convergent boundary. Strike-slip faultsare teep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past each other; transform boundaries are a particular type of strike-slip fault. Many earthquakes are caused by movement on faults that have components of both dip-slip and strike-slip; this is known as oblique slip. Reverse faults, particularly those along  convergent plate boundaries  are associated with the most powerful earthquakes, including almost all of those of magnitude 8 or more. Strike-slip faults, particularly continental  transforms  can produce major earthquakes up to about magnitude 8. Earthquakes associated with normal faults are generally less than magnitude 7. This is so because the energy released in an earthquake, and thus its magnitude, is proportional to the area of the fault that ruptures[3]  and the stress drop. Therefore, the longer the length and the wider the width of the faulted area, the larger the resulting magnitude. The topmost, brittle part of the Earth’s crust, and the cool slabs of the tectonic plates that are descending down into the hot mantle, are the only parts of our planet which can store elastic energy and release it in fault ruptures. Rocks hotter than about 300 degrees Celsius flow in response to stress; they do not rupture in earthquakes. [4][5]  The maximum observed lengths of ruptures and mapped faults, which may break in one go are approximately 1000  km. Examples are the earthquakes in  Chile, 1960;  Alaska, 1957;  Sumatra, 2004, all in subduction zones. The longest earthquake ruptures on strike-slip faults, like the  San Andreas Fault  (1857, 1906), the  North Anatolian Fault  in Turkey (1939) and theDenali Fault  in Alaska (2002), are about half to one third as long as the lengths along subducting plate margins, and those along normal faults are even shorter. Aerial photo of the San Andreas Fault in the  Carrizo Plain, northwest of Los Angeles The most important parameter controlling the maximum earthquake magnitude on a fault is however not the maximum available length, but the available width because the latter varies by a factor of 20. Along converging plate margins, the dip angle of the rupture plane is very shallow, typically about 10 degrees. [6]  Thus the width of the plane within the top brittle crust of the Earth can become 50 to 100  km (Tohoku, 2011;  Alaska, 1964), making the most powerful earthquakes possible. Strike-slip faults tend to be oriented near vertically, resulting in an approximate width of 10  km within the brittle crust,[7]  thus earthquakes with magnitudes much larger than 8 are not possible. Maximum magnitudes along many normal faults are even more limited because many of them are located along spreading centers, as in Iceland, where the thickness of the brittle layer is only about 6  km. [8][9] In addition, there exists a hierarchy of stress level in the three fault types. Thrust faults are generated by the highest, strike slip by intermediate, and normal faults by the lowest stress levels. 10]  This can easily be understood by considering the direction of the greatest principal stress, the direction of the force that ‘pushes’ the rock mass during the faulting. In the case of normal faults, the rock mass is pushed down in a vertical direction, thus the pushing force (greatest  principal stress) equals the weight of the rock mass itself. In the case of thrusting, the rock mass ‘escapes’ in the direction of the least principal stress, namely upward, lifting the rock mass up, thus the overburden equals the  least  principal stress. Strike-slip faulting is intermediate between the other two types described above. This difference in stress regime in the three faulting environments can contribute to differences in stress drop during faulting, which contributes to differences in the radiated energy, regardless of fault dimensions. Earthquakes away from plate boundaries Main article:  Intraplate earthquake Where plate boundaries occur within  continental lithosphere, deformation is spread out over a much larger area than the plate boundary itself. In the case of the  San Andreas fault  continental transform, many earthquakes occur away from the plate boundary and are related to strains developed within the broader zone of deformation caused by major irregularities in the fault trace (e. g. , the â€Å"Big bend† region). The  Northridge earthquake  was associated with movement on a blind thrust within such a zone. Another example is the strongly oblique convergent plate boundary between the  Arabian  and  Eurasian plates  where it runs through the northwestern part of the  Zagros  mountains. You read "Naturally Occuring Earth Quakes" in category "Essay examples" The deformation associated with this plate boundary is partitioned into nearly pure thrust sense movements perpendicular to the boundary over a wide zone to the southwest and nearly pure strike-slip motion along the Main Recent Fault close to the actual plate boundary itself. This is demonstrated by earthquake  focal mechanisms. [11] All tectonic plates have internal stress fields caused by their interactions with neighbouring plates and sedimentary loading or unloading (e. g. deglaciation[12]). These stresses may be sufficient to cause failure along existing fault planes, giving rise to  intraplate earthquakes. [13] Shallow-focus and deep-focus earthquakes Main article:  Depth of focus (tectonics) The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at the ring of fire in depths not exceeding tens of kilometers. Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than 70  km are classified as ‘shallow-focus’ earthquakes, while those with a focal-depth between 70 and 300  km are commonly termed ‘mid-focus’ or ‘intermediate-depth’ earthquakes. In  subduction zones, where older and colder  oceanic crust  descends beneath another tectonic plate,  deep-focus earthquakes  may occur at much greater depths (ranging from 300 up to 700  kilometers). [14]  These seismically active areas of subduction are known as  Wadati-Benioff zones. Deep-focus earthquakes occur at a depth where the subducted  lithosphere  should no longer be brittle, due to the high temperature and pressure. A possible mechanism for the generation of deep-focus earthquakes is faulting caused by  olivine  undergoing a  phase transition  into a  spinel  structure. 15] Earthquakes and volcanic activity Earthquakes often occur in volcanic regions and are caused there, both by  tectonic  faults and the movement of  magma  in  volcanoes. Such earthquakes can serve as an early warning of volcanic eruptions, as during the  Mount St. Helens  eruption of 1980. [16]  Earthquake swarms can serve as markers for the location of the flowing magma throughout the volcanoes. These swarms can be recorded by seismometers and  tiltmeters  (a device that measures ground slope) and used as sensors to predict imminent or upcoming eruptions. [17] Rupture dynamics A tectonic earthquake begins by an initial rupture at a point on the fault surface, a process known as nucleation. The scale of the nucleation zone is uncertain, with some evidence, such as the rupture dimensions of the smallest earthquakes, suggesting that it is smaller than 100 m while other evidence, such as a slow component revealed by low-frequency spectra of some earthquakes, suggest that it is larger. The possibility that the nucleation involves some sort of preparation process is supported by the observation that about 40% of earthquakes are preceded by foreshocks. Once the rupture has initiated it begins to propagate along the fault surface. The mechanics of this process are poorly understood, partly because it is difficult to recreate the high sliding velocities in a laboratory. Also the effects of strong ground motion make it very difficult to record information close to a nucleation zone. [18] Rupture propagation is generally modeled using a  fracture mechanics  approach, likening the rupture to a propagating mixed mode shear crack. The rupture velocity is a function of the fracture energy in the volume around the crack tip, increasing with decreasing fracture energy. The velocity of rupture propagation is orders of magnitude faster than the displacement velocity across the fault. Earthquake ruptures typically propagate at velocities that are in the range 70–90% of the S-wave velocity and this is independent of earthquake size. A small subset of earthquake ruptures appear to have propagated at speeds greater than the S-wave velocity. These  supershear earthquakes  have all been observed during large strike-slip events. The unusually wide zone of coseismic damage caused by the  2001 Kunlun earthquake  has been attributed to the effects of the  sonic boom  developed in such earthquakes. Some earthquake ruptures travel at unusually low velocities and are referred to as  slow earthquakes. A particularly dangerous form of slow earthquake is the  tsunami earthquake, observed where the relatively low felt intensities, caused by the slow propagation speed of some great earthquakes, fail to alert the population of the neighbouring coast, as in the  1896 Meiji-Sanriku earthquake. [18] Tidal forces See also:  Earthquake prediction#Tides Research work has shown a robust correlation between small tidally induced forces and non-volcanic tremor activity. 19][20][21][22] Earthquake clusters Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location and time. [23]  Most earthquake clusters consist of small tremors that cause little to no damage, but there is a theory that earthquakes can recur in a regular pattern. [24] Aftershocks Main article:  Aftershock An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake, the mainshock. An aftershock is in the same region of the main shock but always of a smaller magnitude. If an aftershock is larger than the main shock, the aftershock is redesignated as the main shock and the original main shock is redesignated as a  foreshock. Aftershocks are formed as the crust around the displaced  fault plane  adjusts to the effects of the main shock. [23] Earthquake swarms Main article:  Earthquake swarm Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a specific area within a short period of time. They are different from earthquakes followed by a series of  aftershocks  by the fact that no single earthquake in the sequence is obviously the main shock, therefore none have notable higher magnitudes than the other. An example of an earthquake swarm is the 2004 activity atYellowstone National Park. [25] Earthquake storms Main article:  Earthquake storm Sometimes a series of earthquakes occur in a sort of  earthquake storm, where the earthquakes strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the previous earthquakes. Similar to  aftershocks  but on adjacent segments of fault, these storms occur over the course of years, and with some of the later earthquakes as damaging as the early ones. Such a pattern was observed in the sequence of about a dozen earthquakes that struck the  North Anatolian Fault  in Turkey in the 20th century and has been inferred for older anomalous clusters of large earthquakes in the Middle East. [26][27] ————————————————- Size and frequency of occurrence It is estimated that around 500,000 earthquakes occur each year, detectable with current instrumentation. About 100,000 of these can be felt. [28][29]  Minor earthquakes occur nearly constantly around the world in places like  California  and  Alaska  in the U. S. , as well as n  Mexico,  Guatemala,  Chile,  Peru,  Indonesia,  Iran,  Pakistan, the  Azores  in  Portugal,  Turkey,  New Zealand,  Greece,Italy, and  Japan, but earthquakes can occur almost anywhere, including  New York City,  London, and  Australia. [30]  Larger earthquakes occur less frequently, the relationship being  exponential; for example, roughly ten times as many earthquakes larger than magnitude 4 occur in a particular time period than earthquakes larger than magnitude 5. In the (low seismicity) United Kingdom, for example, it has been calculated that the average recurrences are: an earthquake of 3. –4. 6 every year, an earthquake of 4. 7–5. 5 every 10  years, and an earthquake of 5. 6 or larger every 100  years. [31]  This is an example of the  Gutenberg-Richter law. The  Messina earthquake  and tsunami took as many as 200,000 lives on December 28, 1908 in  Sicily  and  Calabria. [32] The number of seismic stations has increased from about 350 in 1931 to many thousands today. As a result, many more earthquakes are reported than in the past, but this is because of the vast improvement in instrumentation, rather than an increase in the number of earthquakes. The  United States Geological Survey  estimates that, since 1900, there have been an average of 18 major earthquakes (magnitude 7. 0–7. 9) and one great earthquake (magnitude 8. 0 or greater) per year, and that this average has been relatively stable. [33]  In recent years, the number of major earthquakes per year has decreased, though this is probably a statistical fluctuation rather than a systematic trend. [citation needed]  More detailed statistics on the size and frequency of earthquakes is available from the  United States Geological Survey  (USGS). 34]  A recent increase in the number of major earthquakes has been noted, which could be explained by a cyclical pattern of periods of intense tectonic activity, interspersed with longer periods of low-intensity. However, accurate recordings of earthquakes only began in the early 1900s, so it is too early to categorically state that this is the case. [35] Most of the world’s earthquakes (90%, and 81% of t he largest) take place in the 40,000  km long, horseshoe-shaped zone called the circum-Pacific seismic belt, known as the  Pacific Ring of Fire, which for the most part bounds the  Pacific Plate. 36][37]  Massive earthquakes tend to occur along other plate boundaries, too, such as along the  Himalayan Mountains. [38] With the rapid growth of  mega-cities  such as  Mexico City,  Tokyo  and  Tehran, in areas of high  seismic risk, some seismologists are warning that a single quake may claim the lives of up to 3  million people. [39] ————————————————- Induced seismicity Main article:  Induced seismicity While most earthquakes are caused by movement of the Earth’s  tectonic plates, human activity can also produce earthquakes. Four main activities contribute to this phenomenon: storing large amounts of water behind a  dam  (and possibly building an extremely heavy  building), drilling and injecting liquid into  wells, and by  coal mining  and  oil drilling. [40]  Perhaps the best known example is the  2008 Sichuan earthquake  in China’s  Sichuan Province  in May; this tremor resulted in 69,227 fatalities and is the  19th deadliest earthquake of all time. The  Zipingpu Dam  is believed to have fluctuated the pressure of the fault 1,650 feet (503  m) away; this pressure probably increased the power of the earthquake and accelerated the rate of movement for the fault. 41]  The greatest earthquake in Australia’s history is also claimed to be induced by humanity, through coal mining. The city of Newcastle  was built over a large sector of coal mining areas. The earthquake has been reported to be spawned from a fault that reactivated due to the millions of tonnes of rock removed in the mining process. [42] ————————————————- Measuring and locating earthquakes Main article:  Seismology Earthquakes can be recorded by seismometers up to great distances, because  seismic waves  travel through the whole  Earth’s interior. The absolute magnitude of a quake is conventionally reported by numbers on the  Moment magnitude scale  (formerly Richter scale, magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large areas), whereas the felt magnitude is reported using the modifiedMercalli intensity scale  (intensity II–XII). Every tremor produces different types of seismic waves, which travel through rock with different velocities: * Longitudinal  P-waves  (shock- or pressure waves) * Transverse  S-waves  (both body waves) * Surface waves  Ã¢â‚¬â€ (Rayleigh  and  Love  waves) Propagation velocity  of the seismic waves ranges from approx.   km/s up to 13  km/s, depending on the  density  and  elasticity  of the medium. In the Earth’s interior the shock- or P waves travel much faster than the S waves (approx. relation 1. 7  : 1). The differences in  travel time  from the  epicentre  to the observatory are a measure of the distance and can be used to image both sourc es of quakes and structures within the Earth. Also the depth of the  hypocenter  can be computed roughly. In solid rock P-waves travel at about 6 to 7  km per second; the velocity increases within the deep mantle to ~13  km/s. The velocity of S-waves ranges from 2–3  km/s in light sediments and 4–5  km/s in the Earth’s crust up to 7  km/s in the deep mantle. As a consequence, the first waves of a distant earthquake arrive at an observatory via the Earth’s mantle. Rule of thumb: On the average, the kilometer distance to the earthquake is the number of seconds between the P and S wave  times 8. [43]  Slight deviations are caused by inhomogeneities of subsurface structure. By such analyses of seismograms the Earth’s core was located in 1913 by  Beno Gutenberg. Earthquakes are not only categorized by their magnitude but also by the place where they occur. The world is divided into 754  Flinn-Engdahl regions  (F-E regions), which are based on political and geographical boundaries as well as seismic activity. More active zones are divided into smaller F-E regions whereas less active zones belong to larger F-E regions. ————————————————- Effects of earthquakes 1755 copper engraving depicting  Lisbonin ruins and in flames after the  1755 Lisbon earthquake, which killed an estimated 60,000 people. A  tsunami  overwhelms the ships in the harbor. The effects of earthquakes include, but are not limited to, the following: Shaking and ground rupture Damaged buildings in  Port-au-Prince,Haiti, January 2010. Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake  magnitude, the distance from the  epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce  wave propagation. [44]  The ground-shaking is measured by  ground acceleration. Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of shaking on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. This effect is called site or local amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of the  seismic  motion from hard deep soils to soft superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focalization owing to typical geometrical setting of the deposits. Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth’s surface along the trace of the fault, which may be of the order of several metres in the case of major earthquakes. Ground rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures such as  dams, bridges and  nuclear power stations  and requires careful mapping of existing faults to identify any which are likely to break the ground surface within the life of the structure. [45] Landslides and avalanches Main article:  Landslide Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, coastal wave attack, and wildfires, can produce slope instability leading to landslides, a major geological hazard. Landslide danger may persist while emergency personnel are attempting rescue. [46] Fires Fires of the  1906 San Francisco earthquake Earthquakes can cause  fires  by damaging  electrical power  or gas lines. In the event of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has started. For example, more deaths in the  1906 San Francisco earthquake  were caused by fire than by the earthquake itself. [47] Soil liquefaction Main article:  Soil liquefaction Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated  granular  material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a  solid  to a  liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits. This can be a devastating effect of earthquakes. For example, in the  1964 Alaska earthquake, soil liquefaction caused many buildings to sink into the ground, eventually collapsing upon themselves. [48] Tsunami The tsunami of the  2004 Indian Ocean earthquake A large ferry boat rests inland amidst destroyed houses after a 9. 0  earthquakeand subsequent tsunami struck Japan in March 2011. Main article:  Tsunami Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water. In the open ocean the distance between wave crests can surpass 100 kilometers (62  mi), and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600-800  kilometers per hour (373–497 miles per hour), depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the earthquake that generated them. [49] Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7. on the Richter scale do not cause tsunamis, although some instances of this have been recorded. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7. 5 or more. [49] Floods Main article:  Flood A flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land. [50]  Floods occur usually when the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, exceeds the total capacity o f the formation, and as a result some of the water flows or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body. However, floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged. Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which collapse and cause floods. [51] The terrain below the  Sarez Lake  in  Tajikistan  is in danger of catastrophic flood if the  landslide dam  formed by the earthquake, known as the  Usoi Dam, were to fail during a future earthquake. Impact projections suggest the flood could affect roughly 5  million people. [52] Human impacts An earthquake may cause injury and loss of life, road and bridge damage, general  property damage  (which may or may not be covered by  earthquake insurance), and collapse or destabilization (potentially leading to future collapse) of buildings. The aftermath may bring  disease, lack of basic necessities, and higher insurance premiums. ————————————————- Major earthquakes Earthquakes of magnitude 8. 0 and greater since 1900. The apparent 3D volumes of the bubbles are linearly proportional to their respective fatalities. [53] Main article:  List of earthquakes One of the most devastating earthquakes in recorded history occurred on 23 January 1556 in the  Shaanxi  province, China, killing more than 830,000 people (see  1556 Shaanxi earthquake). 54]  Most of the population in the area at the time lived in  yaodongs, artificial caves in  loess  cliffs, many of which collapsed during the catastrophe with great loss of life. The  1976 Tangshan earthquake, with a death toll estimated to be between 240,000 to 655,000, is believed to be the largest earthquake of the 20th century by death toll. [55] The  1960 Chilean Earthquake  is the largest earthquake that has been measured on a seismograph, reaching 9. 5 magnitude on 22 May 1960. [28][29]  Its epicenter was near Canete, Chile. The energy released was approximately twice that of the next most powerful earthquake, the  Good Friday Earthquake, which was centered in  Prince William Sound, Alaska. [56][57]  The ten largest recorded earthquakes have all been  megathrust earthquakes; however, of these ten, only the  2004 Indian Ocean earthquake  is simultaneously one of the deadliest earthquakes in history. Earthquakes that caused the greatest loss of life, while powerful, were deadly because of their proximity to either heavily populated areas or the ocean, where earthquakes often create  tsunamis  that can devastate communities thousands of kilometers away. Regions most at risk for great loss of life include those where earthquakes are relatively rare but powerful, and poor regions with lax, unenforced, or nonexistent seismic building codes. ————————————————- Prediction Main article:  Earthquake prediction Many methods have been developed for predicting the time and place in which earthquakes will occur. Despite considerable research efforts by  seismologists, scientifically reproducible predictions cannot yet be made to a specific day or month. 58]  However, for well-understood faults the probability that a segment may rupture during the next few decades can be estimated. [59] Earthquake warning systems  have been developed that can provide regional notification of an earthquake in progress, but before the ground surface has begun to move, potentially allowing people within the system’s range to seek shelter be fore the earthquake’s impact is felt. ————————————————- Preparedness The objective of  earthquake engineering  is to foresee the impact of earthquakes on buildings and other structures and to design such structures to minimize the risk of damage. Existing structures can be modified by  seismic retrofitting  to improve their resistance to earthquakes. Earthquake insurance  can provide building owners with financial protection against losses resulting from earthquakes. Emergency management  strategies can be employed by a government or organization to mitigate risks and prepare for consequences. ————————————————- Historical views An image from a 1557 book From the lifetime of the Greek philosopher  Anaxagoras  in the 5th century BCE to the 14th century CE, earthquakes were usually attributed to â€Å"air (vapors) in the cavities of the Earth. [60]  Thales  of Miletus, who lived from 625–547 (BCE) was the only documented person who believed that earthquakes were caused by tension between the earth and water. [60]  Other theories existed, including the Greek philosopher Anaxamines’ (585à ¢â‚¬â€œ526 BCE) beliefs that short incline episodes of dryness and wetness caused seismic activity. The Greek philosopher Democritus (460–371 BCE) blamed water in general for earthquakes. [60]  Pliny the Elder  called earthquakes â€Å"underground thunderstorms. â€Å"[60] ————————————————- Earthquakes in culture Mythology and religion In  Norse mythology, earthquakes were explained as the violent struggling of the god  Loki. When Loki,  god  of mischief and strife, murdered  Baldr, god of beauty and light, he was punished by being bound in a cave with a poisonous serpent placed above his head dripping venom. Loki’s wife  Sigyn  stood by him with a bowl to catch the poison, but whenever she had to empty the bowl the poison dripped on Loki’s face, forcing him to jerk his head away and thrash against his bonds, which caused the earth to tremble. [61] In  Greek mythology,  Poseidon  was the cause and god of earthquakes. When he was in a bad mood, he struck the ground with a  trident, causing earthquakes and other calamities. He also used earthquakes to punish and inflict fear upon people as revenge. [62] In  Japanese mythology,  Namazu  (? ) is a giant  catfish  who causes earthquakes. Namazu lives in the mud beneath the earth, and is guarded by the god  Kashima  who restrains the fish with a stone. When Kashima lets his guard fall, Namazu thrashes about, causing violent earthquakes. Popular culture In modern  popular culture, the portrayal of earthquakes is shaped by the memory of great cities laid waste, such as  Kobe in 1995  or  San Francisco in 1906. 63]  Fictional earthquakes tend to strike suddenly and without warning. [63]  For this reason, stories about earthquakes generally begin with the disaster and focus on its immediate aftermath, as in  Short Walk to Daylight  (1972),  The Ragged Edge  (1968) or  Aftershock: Earthquake in New York  (1998). [63]à ‚  A notable example is Heinrich von Kleist’s classic novella,  The Earthquake in Chile, which describes the destruction of Santiago in 1647. Haruki Murakami’s short fiction collection  after the quake  depicts the consequences of the Kobe earthquake of 1995. The most popular single earthquake in fiction is the hypothetical â€Å"Big One† expected of  California’s  San Andreas Fault  someday, as depicted in the novels  Richter 10  (1996) and  Goodbye California  (1977) among other works. [63]  Jacob M. Appel’s widely anthologized short story,  A Comparative Seismology, features a con artist who convinces an elderly woman that an apocalyptic earthquake is imminent. [64]  In  Pleasure Boating in Lituya Bay, one of the stories in  Jim Shepard’s  Like You’d Understand, Anyway, the â€Å"Big One† leads to an even more devastating tsunami. In the film  2012  (2009), solar flares (geologically implausibly) affecting the Earth’s core caused massive destabilization of the Earth’s crust layers. This created destruction planet-wide with earthquakes and tsunamis, foreseen by the  Mayan  culture and myth surrounding the last year noted in the  Mesoamerican calendar  Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã‚  2012. Contemporary depictions of earthquakes in film are variable in the manner in which they reflect human psychological reactions to the actual trauma that can be caused to directly afflicted families and their loved ones. 65]  Disaster mental health response research emphasizes the need to be aware of the different roles of loss of family and key community members, loss of home and familiar surroundings, loss of essential supplies and services to maintain survival. [66][67]  Particularly for children, the clear availability of caregiving adults who are able to protect, nourish, and clothe them in the aftermath of the ea rthquake, and to help them make sense of what has befallen them has been shown even more important to their emotional and physical health than the simple giving of provisions. 68]  As was observed after other disasters involving destruction and loss of life and their media depictions, such as those of the 2001 World Trade Center Attacks or Hurricane Katrina—and has been recently observed in the  2010 Haiti earthquake, it is also important not to pathologize the reactions to loss and displacement or disruption of governmental administration and services, but rather to validate these reactions, to support constructive problem-solving and reflection as to how one might improve the conditions of those affected. [69] How to cite Naturally Occuring Earth Quakes, Essay examples

Uzbekistan †a country of great opportunity free essay sample

Uzbekistan as an independent and sovereign state appeared on the political map recently. But if we look back we will see how fast Uzbekistan is burgeoning at economy sphere, development of industry, agriculture and other since independence was proclaimed. The climate in our country is unique but rather favorable for the cultivation of various fruits, vegetables, agricultural products. About 32 mln. hectares of land (out of 45 mln. hectares) are used at agriculture. Approximately 83% of these lands are open grasslands. On irrigated land world famous grapes and cotton are cultivated, of which high-end products are received. In addition, astrakhan and wool are also proud of Uzbekistan. The republic of Uzbekistan has many strategically important fields and mines of oil, gas, coal, gold, silver, precious metals etc. Some of them are oil and gas deposits in Bukhara, Samarkand, Shurtan, Ustyurt; coal – in Baisun and Angren pools. The most popular gold mine is situated in Muruntau. We will write a custom essay sample on Uzbekistan – a country of great opportunity or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Moreover, Uzbekistan cooperates with many countries of the world and has friendly and diplomatic relations. For instance, economic talks with one of the largest companies in Thailand  «PTTEP ». As the leader of the delegation Apichart Chinvanno claimed that the main aim of their visit was to contribute to the strengthening of bilateral relations between the two countries which have great potential in such areas as trade, investment and tourism. Representatives of the company  «PTTEP » interested in investing in oil and gas sector of Uzbekistan. In this regard, they have held talks with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations, Investments and Trade of Uzbekistan and Uzbekneftegaz. â€Å"Uzbekistan is of great concern to the Thai business, particularly for its private sector. There are wide opportunities for Thai businessmen in Uzbekistan for the development of a successful trade between our countries. In turn, I will do everything I hang, so that the Uzbek-Thai trade, economic and investment cooperation is constantly evolving ascending†. – said Chinvanno. In addition besides huge mineral reserves, Uzbekistan has 50-60% of the labor force of the total population, which is important. And this figure is growing every year. Uzbekistan is literally a young country, as about 60% of the population people on average up to 30 years. Literacy in Uzbekistan is about 95%. By level of education, our state is on one of the honorable places among the developed countries of the world. Thus, we can see how big has endowed our country, what it has already achieved and what can be achieved in the future. Incredible potential of the state once again points to the future development, change and progress. And every citizen can proudly state that Uzbekistan a country of great opportunity.